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/design/trunk/src/ch_memory_management.xml |
---|
4,9 → 4,9 |
<title>Memory management</title> |
<section> |
<!-- VM --> |
<section><!-- VM --> |
<title>Virtual memory management</title> |
<section> |
20,212 → 20,304 |
<para></para> |
</section> |
</section><!-- End of VM --> |
</section> |
<!-- End of VM --> |
<section><!-- Phys mem --> |
<section> |
<!-- Phys mem --> |
<title>Physical memory management</title> |
<section id="zones_and_frames"> |
<title>Zones and frames</title> |
<para> <graphic fileref="images/mm2.png" /> </para> |
<para>On some architectures not whole physical memory is available for conventional usage. This limitations |
require from kernel to maintain a table of available and unavailable ranges of physical memory addresses. |
Main idea of zones is in creating memory zone entity, that is a continuous chunk of memory available for allocation. |
If some chunk is not available, we simply do not put it in any zone. |
</para> |
<para> |
Zone is also serves for informational purposes, containing information about number of free and busy frames. Physical memory |
allocation is also done inside the certain zone. Allocation of zone frame must be organized by the |
<link linkend="frame_allocator">frame allocator</link> associated with the zone. |
</para> |
<!--graphic fileref="images/mm2.png" /--> |
<para>Some of the architectures (mips32, ppc32) have only one zone, that covers whole |
physical memory, and the others (like ia32) may have multiple zones. Information about zones on current machine is stored |
in BIOS hardware tables or can be hardcoded into kernel during compile time.</para> |
<!--graphic fileref="images/buddy_alloc.svg" format="SVG" /--> |
<mediaobject |
</para> |
<para>On some architectures not whole physical memory is available for |
conventional usage. This limitations require from kernel to maintain a |
table of available and unavailable ranges of physical memory addresses. |
Main idea of zones is in creating memory zone entity, that is a |
continuous chunk of memory available for allocation. If some chunk is |
not available, we simply do not put it in any zone.</para> |
<para>Zone is also serves for informational purposes, containing |
information about number of free and busy frames. Physical memory |
allocation is also done inside the certain zone. Allocation of zone |
frame must be organized by the <link linkend="frame_allocator">frame |
allocator</link> associated with the zone.</para> |
<para>Some of the architectures (mips32, ppc32) have only one zone, that |
covers whole physical memory, and the others (like ia32) may have |
multiple zones. Information about zones on current machine is stored in |
BIOS hardware tables or can be hardcoded into kernel during compile |
time.</para> |
</section> |
<section id="frame_allocator"> |
<title>Frame allocator</title> |
<formalpara> |
<title>Overview</title> |
<para>Frame allocator provides physical memory allocation for the kernel. Because of zonal organization of physical memory, |
frame allocator is always working in context of some zone, thus making impossible to allocate a piece of memory, which lays in different zone, which |
cannot happen, because two adjacent zones can be merged into one. Frame allocator is also being responsible to update information on |
the number of free/busy frames in zone. |
Physical memory allocation inside one <link |
linkend="zones_and_frames">memory zone</link> is being handled by an |
instance of <link linkend="buddy_allocator">buddy allocator</link> |
tailored to allocate blocks of physical memory frames. |
</para> |
</formalpara> |
<formalpara> |
<title>Allocation / deallocation</title> |
<para> |
Upon allocation request, frame allocator tries to find first zone, that can satisfy the incoming request (has required amount of free frames to allocate). |
During deallocation, frame allocator needs to find zone, that contain deallocated frame. |
This approach could bring up two potential problems: |
<itemizedlist> |
<listitem> |
Linear search of zones does not any good to performance, but number of zones is not expected to be high. And if yes, list of zones can be replaced with more time-efficient B-tree. |
</listitem> |
<listitem> |
Quickly find out if zone contains required number of frames to allocate and if this chunk of memory is properly aligned. This issue is perfectly solved bu the buddy allocator. |
</listitem> |
</itemizedlist> |
</para> |
</formalpara> |
</section> |
<formalpara> |
<title>Overview</title> |
</section> |
<para>Frame allocator provides physical memory allocation for the |
kernel. Because of zonal organization of physical memory, frame |
allocator is always working in context of some zone, thus making |
impossible to allocate a piece of memory, which lays in different |
zone, which cannot happen, because two adjacent zones can be merged |
into one. Frame allocator is also being responsible to update |
information on the number of free/busy frames in zone. Physical memory |
allocation inside one <link linkend="zones_and_frames">memory |
zone</link> is being handled by an instance of <link |
linkend="buddy_allocator">buddy allocator</link> tailored to allocate |
blocks of physical memory frames.</para> |
</formalpara> |
<formalpara> |
<title>Allocation / deallocation</title> |
<para>Upon allocation request, frame allocator tries to find first |
zone, that can satisfy the incoming request (has required amount of |
free frames to allocate). During deallocation, frame allocator needs |
to find zone, that contain deallocated frame. This approach could |
bring up two potential problems: <itemizedlist> |
<listitem> |
Linear search of zones does not any good to performance, but number of zones is not expected to be high. And if yes, list of zones can be replaced with more time-efficient B-tree. |
</listitem> |
<section id="buddy_allocator"> |
<title>Buddy allocator</title> |
<listitem> |
Quickly find out if zone contains required number of frames to allocate and if this chunk of memory is properly aligned. This issue is perfectly solved bu the buddy allocator. |
</listitem> |
</itemizedlist></para> |
</formalpara> |
</section> |
</section> |
<section> |
<title>Overview</title> |
<section id="buddy_allocator"> |
<title>Buddy allocator</title> |
<para>In buddy allocator, memory is broken down into power-of-two |
sized naturally aligned blocks. These blocks are organized in an array |
of lists in which list with index i contains all unallocated blocks of |
the size <mathphrase>2<superscript>i</superscript></mathphrase>. The |
index i is called the order of block. Should there be two adjacent |
equally sized blocks in list <mathphrase>i</mathphrase> (i.e. |
buddies), the buddy allocator would coalesce them and put the |
resulting block in list <mathphrase>i + 1</mathphrase>, provided that |
the resulting block would be naturally aligned. Similarily, when the |
allocator is asked to allocate a block of size |
<mathphrase>2<superscript>i</superscript></mathphrase>, it first tries |
to satisfy the request from list with index i. If the request cannot |
be satisfied (i.e. the list i is empty), the buddy allocator will try |
to allocate and split larger block from list with index i + 1. Both of |
these algorithms are recursive. The recursion ends either when there |
are no blocks to coalesce in the former case or when there are no |
blocks that can be split in the latter case.</para> |
<section> |
<title>Overview</title> |
<graphic fileref="images/mm1.png" format="EPS" /> |
<para>In buddy allocator, memory is broken down into power-of-two sized |
naturally aligned blocks. These blocks are organized in an array of |
lists in which list with index i contains all unallocated blocks of the |
size <mathphrase>2<superscript>i</superscript></mathphrase>. The index i |
is called the order of block. Should there be two adjacent equally sized |
blocks in list <mathphrase>i</mathphrase> (i.e. buddies), the buddy |
allocator would coalesce them and put the resulting block in list |
<mathphrase>i + 1</mathphrase>, provided that the resulting block would |
be naturally aligned. Similarily, when the allocator is asked to |
allocate a block of size |
<mathphrase>2<superscript>i</superscript></mathphrase>, it first tries |
to satisfy the request from list with index i. If the request cannot be |
satisfied (i.e. the list i is empty), the buddy allocator will try to |
allocate and split larger block from list with index i + 1. Both of |
these algorithms are recursive. The recursion ends either when there are |
no blocks to coalesce in the former case or when there are no blocks |
that can be split in the latter case.</para> |
<para>This approach greatly reduces external fragmentation of memory |
and helps in allocating bigger continuous blocks of memory aligned to |
their size. On the other hand, the buddy allocator suffers increased |
internal fragmentation of memory and is not suitable for general |
kernel allocations. This purpose is better addressed by the <link |
linkend="slab">slab allocator</link>.</para> |
</section> |
<graphic fileref="images/mm1.png" format="EPS" /> |
<section> |
<title>Implementation</title> |
<para>This approach greatly reduces external fragmentation of memory and |
helps in allocating bigger continuous blocks of memory aligned to their |
size. On the other hand, the buddy allocator suffers increased internal |
fragmentation of memory and is not suitable for general kernel |
allocations. This purpose is better addressed by the <link |
linkend="slab">slab allocator</link>.</para> |
</section> |
<para>The buddy allocator is, in fact, an abstract framework wich can |
be easily specialized to serve one particular task. It knows nothing |
about the nature of memory it helps to allocate. In order to beat the |
lack of this knowledge, the buddy allocator exports an interface that |
each of its clients is required to implement. When supplied an |
implementation of this interface, the buddy allocator can use |
specialized external functions to find buddy for a block, split and |
coalesce blocks, manipulate block order and mark blocks busy or |
available. For precize documentation of this interface, refer to <link |
linkend="???">HelenOS Generic Kernel Reference Manual</link>.</para> |
<section> |
<title>Implementation</title> |
<formalpara> |
<title>Data organization</title> |
<para>The buddy allocator is, in fact, an abstract framework wich can be |
easily specialized to serve one particular task. It knows nothing about |
the nature of memory it helps to allocate. In order to beat the lack of |
this knowledge, the buddy allocator exports an interface that each of |
its clients is required to implement. When supplied an implementation of |
this interface, the buddy allocator can use specialized external |
functions to find buddy for a block, split and coalesce blocks, |
manipulate block order and mark blocks busy or available. For precize |
documentation of this interface, refer to <link linkend="???">HelenOS |
Generic Kernel Reference Manual</link>.</para> |
<para>Each entity allocable by the buddy allocator is required to |
contain space for storing block order number and a link variable |
used to interconnect blocks within the same order.</para> |
<formalpara> |
<title>Data organization</title> |
<para>Whatever entities are allocated by the buddy allocator, the |
first entity within a block is used to represent the entire block. |
The first entity keeps the order of the whole block. Other entities |
within the block are assigned the magic value |
<constant>BUDDY_INNER_BLOCK</constant>. This is especially important |
for effective identification of buddies in one-dimensional array |
because the entity that represents a potential buddy cannot be |
associated with <constant>BUDDY_INNER_BLOCK</constant> (i.e. if it |
is associated with <constant>BUDDY_INNER_BLOCK</constant> then it is |
not a buddy).</para> |
</formalpara> |
<formalpara> |
<title>Data organization</title> |
<para>Each entity allocable by the buddy allocator is required to |
contain space for storing block order number and a link variable used |
to interconnect blocks within the same order.</para> |
<para>Buddy allocator always uses first frame to represent frame |
block. This frame contains <varname>buddy_order</varname> variable |
to provide information about the block size it actually represents ( |
<mathphrase>2<superscript>buddy_order</superscript></mathphrase> |
frames block). Other frames in block have this value set to magic |
<constant>BUDDY_INNER_BLOCK</constant> that is much greater than |
buddy <varname>max_order</varname> value.</para> |
<para>Whatever entities are allocated by the buddy allocator, the |
first entity within a block is used to represent the entire block. The |
first entity keeps the order of the whole block. Other entities within |
the block are assigned the magic value |
<constant>BUDDY_INNER_BLOCK</constant>. This is especially important |
for effective identification of buddies in one-dimensional array |
because the entity that represents a potential buddy cannot be |
associated with <constant>BUDDY_INNER_BLOCK</constant> (i.e. if it is |
associated with <constant>BUDDY_INNER_BLOCK</constant> then it is not |
a buddy).</para> |
</formalpara> |
<para>Each <varname>frame_t</varname> also contains pointer member |
to hold frame structure in the linked list inside one order.</para> |
</formalpara> |
<formalpara> |
<title>Data organization</title> |
<formalpara> |
<title>Allocation algorithm</title> |
<para>Buddy allocator always uses first frame to represent frame |
block. This frame contains <varname>buddy_order</varname> variable to |
provide information about the block size it actually represents ( |
<mathphrase>2<superscript>buddy_order</superscript></mathphrase> |
frames block). Other frames in block have this value set to magic |
<constant>BUDDY_INNER_BLOCK</constant> that is much greater than buddy |
<varname>max_order</varname> value.</para> |
<para>Upon <mathphrase>2<superscript>i</superscript></mathphrase> |
frames block allocation request, allocator checks if there are any |
blocks available at the order list <varname>i</varname>. If yes, |
removes block from order list and returns its address. If no, |
recursively allocates |
<mathphrase>2<superscript>i+1</superscript></mathphrase> frame |
block, splits it into two |
<mathphrase>2<superscript>i</superscript></mathphrase> frame blocks. |
Then adds one of the blocks to the <varname>i</varname> order list |
and returns address of another.</para> |
</formalpara> |
<para>Each <varname>frame_t</varname> also contains pointer member to |
hold frame structure in the linked list inside one order.</para> |
</formalpara> |
<formalpara> |
<title>Deallocation algorithm</title> |
<formalpara> |
<title>Allocation algorithm</title> |
<para>Check if block has so called buddy (another free |
<mathphrase>2<superscript>i</superscript></mathphrase> frame block |
that can be linked with freed block into the |
<mathphrase>2<superscript>i+1</superscript></mathphrase> block). |
Technically, buddy is a odd/even block for even/odd block |
respectively. Plus we can put an extra requirement, that resulting |
block must be aligned to its size. This requirement guarantees |
natural block alignment for the blocks coming out the allocation |
system.</para> |
<para>Upon <mathphrase>2<superscript>i</superscript></mathphrase> |
frames block allocation request, allocator checks if there are any |
blocks available at the order list <varname>i</varname>. If yes, |
removes block from order list and returns its address. If no, |
recursively allocates |
<mathphrase>2<superscript>i+1</superscript></mathphrase> frame block, |
splits it into two |
<mathphrase>2<superscript>i</superscript></mathphrase> frame blocks. |
Then adds one of the blocks to the <varname>i</varname> order list and |
returns address of another.</para> |
</formalpara> |
<para>Using direct pointer arithmetics, |
<varname>frame_t::ref_count</varname> and |
<varname>frame_t::buddy_order</varname> variables, finding buddy is |
done at constant time.</para> |
</formalpara> |
</section> |
<formalpara> |
<title>Deallocation algorithm</title> |
<para>Check if block has so called buddy (another free |
<mathphrase>2<superscript>i</superscript></mathphrase> frame block |
that can be linked with freed block into the |
<mathphrase>2<superscript>i+1</superscript></mathphrase> block). |
Technically, buddy is a odd/even block for even/odd block |
respectively. Plus we can put an extra requirement, that resulting |
block must be aligned to its size. This requirement guarantees natural |
block alignment for the blocks coming out the allocation |
system.</para> |
<para>Using direct pointer arithmetics, |
<varname>frame_t::ref_count</varname> and |
<varname>frame_t::buddy_order</varname> variables, finding buddy is |
done at constant time.</para> |
</formalpara> |
</section> |
<section id="slab"> |
<title>Slab allocator</title> |
<para>Kernel memory allocation is handled by slab.</para> |
</section><!-- End of Physmem --> |
<section> |
<title>Introduction</title> |
</section> |
<para>The majority of memory allocation requests in the kernel are for |
small, frequently used data structures. For this purpose the slab |
allocator is a perfect solution. The basic idea behind a slab |
allocator is to have lists of commonly used objects available packed |
into pages. This avoids the overhead of allocating and destroying |
commonly used types of objects such as inodes, threads, virtual memory |
structures etc.</para> |
<para>Original slab allocator locking mechanism has become a |
significant preformance bottleneck on SMP architectures. <termdef>Slab |
SMP perfromance bottleneck was resolved by introducing a per-CPU |
caching scheme called as <glossterm>magazine |
layer</glossterm></termdef>.</para> |
</section> |
<section> |
<title>Memory sharing</title> |
<section> |
<title>Implementation details (needs revision)</title> |
<para>Not implemented yet(?)</para> |
<para>The SLAB allocator is closely modelled after <ulink |
url="http://www.usenix.org/events/usenix01/full_papers/bonwick/bonwick_html/"> |
OpenSolaris SLAB allocator by Jeff Bonwick and Jonathan Adams </ulink> |
with the following exceptions: <itemizedlist> |
<listitem> |
empty SLABS are deallocated immediately (in Linux they are kept in linked list, in Solaris ???) |
</listitem> |
<listitem> |
empty magazines are deallocated when not needed (in Solaris they are held in linked list in slab cache) |
</listitem> |
</itemizedlist> Following features are not currently supported but |
would be easy to do: <itemizedlist> |
<listitem> |
- cache coloring |
</listitem> |
<listitem> |
- dynamic magazine growing (different magazine sizes are already supported, but we would need to adjust allocation strategy) |
</listitem> |
</itemizedlist></para> |
<para>The SLAB allocator supports per-CPU caches ('magazines') to |
facilitate good SMP scaling.</para> |
<para>When a new object is being allocated, it is first checked, if it |
is available in CPU-bound magazine. If it is not found there, it is |
allocated from CPU-shared SLAB - if partial full is found, it is used, |
otherwise a new one is allocated.</para> |
<para>When an object is being deallocated, it is put to CPU-bound |
magazine. If there is no such magazine, new one is allocated (if it |
fails, the object is deallocated into SLAB). If the magazine is full, |
it is put into cpu-shared list of magazines and new one is |
allocated.</para> |
<para>The CPU-bound magazine is actually a pair of magazines to avoid |
thrashing when somebody is allocating/deallocating 1 item at the |
magazine size boundary. LIFO order is enforced, which should avoid |
fragmentation as much as possible.</para> |
<para>Every cache contains list of full slabs and list of partialy |
full slabs. Empty SLABS are immediately freed (thrashing will be |
avoided because of magazines).</para> |
<para>The SLAB information structure is kept inside the data area, if |
possible. The cache can be marked that it should not use magazines. |
This is used only for SLAB related caches to avoid deadlocks and |
infinite recursion (the SLAB allocator uses itself for allocating all |
it's control structures).</para> |
<para>The SLAB allocator allocates lots of space and does not free it. |
When frame allocator fails to allocate the frame, it calls |
slab_reclaim(). It tries 'light reclaim' first, then brutal reclaim. |
The light reclaim releases slabs from cpu-shared magazine-list, until |
at least 1 slab is deallocated in each cache (this algorithm should |
probably change). The brutal reclaim removes all cached objects, even |
from CPU-bound magazines.</para> |
<para>TODO: <itemizedlist> |
<listitem> |
For better CPU-scaling the magazine allocation strategy should be extended. Currently, if the cache does not have magazine, it asks for non-cpu cached magazine cache to provide one. It might be feasible to add cpu-cached magazine cache (which would allocate it's magazines from non-cpu-cached mag. cache). This would provide a nice per-cpu buffer. The other possibility is to use the per-cache 'empty-magazine-list', which decreases competing for 1 per-system magazine cache. |
</listitem> |
<listitem> |
- it might be good to add granularity of locks even to slab level, we could then try_spinlock over all partial slabs and thus improve scalability even on slab level |
</listitem> |
</itemizedlist></para> |
</section> |
</section> |
<!-- End of Physmem --> |
</section> |
<section> |
<title>Memory sharing</title> |
<para>Not implemented yet(?)</para> |
</section> |
</chapter> |