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<chapter id="mm">

  <?dbhtml filename="mm.html"?>

  <title>Memory management</title>

  <para>In previous chapters, this book described the scheduling subsystem as

  the creator of the impression that threads execute in parallel. The memory

  management subsystem, on the other hand, creates the impression that there

  is enough physical memory for the kernel and that userspace tasks have the

  entire address space only for themselves.</para>

  <section>

    <title>Physical memory management</title>

    <section id="zones_and_frames">

      <indexterm><primary>memory management</primary><secondary>memory zone</secondary></indexterm>

      <title>Zones and frames</title>

      <para>HelenOS represents continuous areas of physical memory in

      structures called frame zones (abbreviated as zones). Each zone contains

      information about the number of allocated and unallocated physical

      memory frames as well as the physical base address of the zone and

      number of frames contained in it. A zone also contains an array of frame

      structures describing each frame of the zone and, in the last, but not

      the least important, front, each zone is equipped with a buddy system

      that faciliates effective allocation of power-of-two sized block of

      frames.</para>

      <para>This organization of physical memory provides good preconditions

      for hot-plugging of more zones. There is also one currently unused zone

      attribute: <code>flags</code>. The attribute could be used to give a

      special meaning to some zones in the future.</para>

      <para>The zones are linked in a doubly-linked list. This might seem a

      bit ineffective because the zone list is walked everytime a frame is

      allocated or deallocated. However, this does not represent a significant

      performance problem as it is expected that the number of zones will be

      rather low. Moreover, most architectures merge all zones into

      one.</para>

      <para>For each physical memory frame found in a zone, there is a frame

      structure that contains number of references and data used by buddy

      system.</para>

    </section>

    <section id="frame_allocator">

      <indexterm><primary>memory management</primary><secondary>frame allocator</secondary></indexterm>

      <title>Frame allocator</title>

      <para>The frame allocator satisfies kernel requests to allocate

      power-of-two sized blocks of physical memory. Because of zonal

      organization of physical memory, the frame allocator is always working

      within a context of some frame zone. In order to carry out the

      allocation requests, the frame allocator is tightly integrated with the

      buddy system belonging to the zone. The frame allocator is also

      responsible for updating information about the number of free and busy

      frames in the zone. <figure>

          <mediaobject id="frame_alloc">

            <imageobject role="html">

              <imagedata fileref="images/frame_alloc.png" format="PNG" />

            </imageobject>

            <imageobject role="fop">

              <imagedata fileref="images.vector/frame_alloc.svg" format="SVG" />

            </imageobject>

          </mediaobject>

          <title>Frame allocator scheme.</title>

        </figure></para>

      <formalpara>

        <title>Allocation / deallocation</title>

        <para>Upon allocation request via function <code>frame_alloc</code>,

        the frame allocator first tries to find a zone that can satisfy the

        request (i.e. has the required amount of free frames). Once a suitable

        zone is found, the frame allocator uses the buddy allocator on the

        zone's buddy system to perform the allocation. During deallocation,

        which is triggered by a call to <code>frame_free</code>, the frame

        allocator looks up the respective zone that contains the frame being

        deallocated. Afterwards, it calls the buddy allocator again, this time

        to take care of deallocation within the zone's buddy system.</para>

      </formalpara>

    </section>

    <section id="buddy_allocator">

      <indexterm><primary>memory management</primary><secondary>buddy system</secondary></indexterm>

      <title>Buddy allocator</title>

      <para>In the buddy system, the memory is broken down into power-of-two

      sized naturally aligned blocks. These blocks are organized in an array

      of lists, in which the list with index i contains all unallocated blocks

      of size <mathphrase>2<superscript>i</superscript></mathphrase>. The

      index i is called the order of block. Should there be two adjacent

      equally sized blocks in the list i<mathphrase />(i.e. buddies), the

      buddy allocator would coalesce them and put the resulting block in list

      <mathphrase>i + 1</mathphrase>, provided that the resulting block would

      be naturally aligned. Similarily, when the allocator is asked to

      allocate a block of size

      <mathphrase>2<superscript>i</superscript></mathphrase>, it first tries

      to satisfy the request from the list with index i. If the request cannot

      be satisfied (i.e. the list i is empty), the buddy allocator will try to

      allocate and split a larger block from the list with index i + 1. Both

      of these algorithms are recursive. The recursion ends either when there

      are no blocks to coalesce in the former case or when there are no blocks

      that can be split in the latter case.</para>

      <para>This approach greatly reduces external fragmentation of memory and

      helps in allocating bigger continuous blocks of memory aligned to their

      size. On the other hand, the buddy allocator suffers increased internal

      fragmentation of memory and is not suitable for general kernel

      allocations. This purpose is better addressed by the <link

      linkend="slab">slab allocator</link>.<figure>

          <mediaobject id="buddy_alloc">

            <imageobject role="html">

              <imagedata fileref="images/buddy_alloc.png" format="PNG" />

            </imageobject>

            <imageobject role="fop">

              <imagedata fileref="images.vector/buddy_alloc.svg" format="SVG" />

            </imageobject>

          </mediaobject>

          <title>Buddy system scheme.</title>

        </figure></para>

      <section>

        <title>Implementation</title>

        <para>The buddy allocator is, in fact, an abstract framework wich can

        be easily specialized to serve one particular task. It knows nothing

        about the nature of memory it helps to allocate. In order to beat the

        lack of this knowledge, the buddy allocator exports an interface that

        each of its clients is required to implement. When supplied with an

        implementation of this interface, the buddy allocator can use

        specialized external functions to find a buddy for a block, split and

        coalesce blocks, manipulate block order and mark blocks busy or

        available.</para>

        <formalpara>

          <title>Data organization</title>

          <para>Each entity allocable by the buddy allocator is required to

          contain space for storing block order number and a link variable

          used to interconnect blocks within the same order.</para>

          <para>Whatever entities are allocated by the buddy allocator, the

          first entity within a block is used to represent the entire block.

          The first entity keeps the order of the whole block. Other entities

          within the block are assigned the magic value

          <constant>BUDDY_INNER_BLOCK</constant>. This is especially important

          for effective identification of buddies in a one-dimensional array

          because the entity that represents a potential buddy cannot be

          associated with <constant>BUDDY_INNER_BLOCK</constant> (i.e. if it

          is associated with <constant>BUDDY_INNER_BLOCK</constant> then it is

          not a buddy).</para>

        </formalpara>

      </section>

    </section>

    <section id="slab">

    <indexterm><primary>memory management</primary><secondary>slab</secondary></indexterm>      

    <title>Slab allocator</title>

      <para>The majority of memory allocation requests in the kernel is for

      small, frequently used data structures. The basic idea behind the slab

      allocator is that commonly used objects are preallocated in continuous

      areas of physical memory called slabs<footnote>

          <para>Slabs are in fact blocks of physical memory frames allocated

          from the frame allocator.</para>

        </footnote>. Whenever an object is to be allocated, the slab allocator

      returns the first available item from a suitable slab corresponding to

      the object type<footnote>

          <para>The mechanism is rather more complicated, see the next

          paragraph.</para>

        </footnote>. Due to the fact that the sizes of the requested and

      allocated object match, the slab allocator significantly reduces

      internal fragmentation.</para>

      <para>Slabs of one object type are organized in a structure called slab

      cache. There are ususally more slabs in the slab cache, depending on

      previous allocations. If the the slab cache runs out of available slabs,

      new slabs are allocated. In order to exploit parallelism and to avoid

      locking of shared spinlocks, slab caches can have variants of

      processor-private slabs called magazines. On each processor, there is a

      two-magazine cache. Full magazines that are not part of any

      per-processor magazine cache are stored in a global list of full

      magazines.</para>

      <para>Each object begins its life in a slab. When it is allocated from

      there, the slab allocator calls a constructor that is registered in the

      respective slab cache. The constructor initializes and brings the object

      into a known state. The object is then used by the user. When the user

      later frees the object, the slab allocator puts it into a processor

      private magazine cache, from where it can be precedently allocated

      again. Note that allocations satisfied from a magazine are already

      initialized by the constructor. When both of the processor cached

      magazines get full, the allocator will move one of the magazines to the

      list of full magazines. Similarily, when allocating from an empty

      processor magazine cache, the kernel will reload only one magazine from

      the list of full magazines. In other words, the slab allocator tries to

      keep the processor magazine cache only half-full in order to prevent

      thrashing when allocations and deallocations interleave on magazine

      boundaries.</para>

      <para>Should HelenOS run short of memory, it would start deallocating

      objects from magazines, calling slab cache destructor on them and

      putting them back into slabs. When a slab contanins no allocated object,

      it is immediately freed.</para>

      <para><figure>

          <mediaobject id="slab_alloc">

            <imageobject role="html">

              <imagedata fileref="images/slab_alloc.png" format="PNG" />

            </imageobject>

          </mediaobject>

          <title>Slab allocator scheme.</title>

        </figure></para>

      <section>

        <title>Implementation</title>

        <para>The slab allocator is closely modelled after OpenSolaris slab

        allocator by Jeff Bonwick and Jonathan Adams with the following

        exceptions:<itemizedlist>

            <listitem>

               empty slabs are immediately deallocated

            </listitem>

            <listitem>

              <para>empty magazines are deallocated when not needed</para>

            </listitem>

          </itemizedlist> Following features are not currently supported but

        would be easy to do: <itemizedlist>

            <listitem>

               cache coloring

            </listitem>

            <listitem>

               dynamic magazine grow (different magazine sizes are already supported, but the allocation strategy would need to be adjusted)

            </listitem>

          </itemizedlist></para>

        <section>

        <indexterm><primary>memory management</primary><secondary>slab magazine</secondary></indexterm>

        <title>Magazine layer</title>

          <para>Due to the extensive bottleneck on SMP architures, caused by

          global slab locking mechanism, making processing of all slab

          allocation requests serialized, a new layer was introduced to the

          classic slab allocator design. Slab allocator was extended to

          support per-CPU caches 'magazines' to achieve good SMP scaling.

          <termdef>Slab SMP perfromance bottleneck was resolved by introducing

          a per-CPU caching scheme called as <glossterm>magazine

          layer</glossterm></termdef>.</para>

          <para>Magazine is a N-element cache of objects, so each magazine can

          satisfy N allocations. Magazine behaves like a automatic weapon

          magazine (LIFO, stack), so the allocation/deallocation become simple

          push/pop pointer operation. Trick is that CPU does not access global

          slab allocator data during the allocation from its magazine, thus

          making possible parallel allocations between CPUs.</para>

          <para>Implementation also requires adding another feature as the

          CPU-bound magazine is actually a pair of magazines to avoid

          thrashing when during allocation/deallocatiion of 1 item at the

          magazine size boundary. LIFO order is enforced, which should avoid

          fragmentation as much as possible.</para>

          <para>Another important entity of magazine layer is the common full

          magazine list (also called a depot), that stores full magazines that

          may be used by any of the CPU magazine caches to reload active CPU

          magazine. This list of magazines can be pre-filled with full

          magazines during initialization, but in current implementation it is

          filled during object deallocation, when CPU magazine becomes

          full.</para>

          <para>Slab allocator control structures are allocated from special

          slabs, that are marked by special flag, indicating that it should

          not be used for slab magazine layer. This is done to avoid possible

          infinite recursions and deadlock during conventional slab allocaiton

          requests.</para>

        </section>

        <section>

          <title>Allocation/deallocation</title>

          <para>Every cache contains list of full slabs and list of partialy

          full slabs. Empty slabs are immediately freed (thrashing will be

          avoided because of magazines).</para>

          <para>The SLAB allocator allocates lots of space and does not free

          it. When frame allocator fails to allocate the frame, it calls

          slab_reclaim(). It tries 'light reclaim' first, then brutal reclaim.

          The light reclaim releases slabs from cpu-shared magazine-list,

          until at least 1 slab is deallocated in each cache (this algorithm

          should probably change). The brutal reclaim removes all cached

          objects, even from CPU-bound magazines.</para>

          <formalpara>

            <title>Allocation</title>

            <para><emphasis>Step 1.</emphasis> When it comes to the allocation

            request, slab allocator first of all checks availability of memory

            in local CPU-bound magazine. If it is there, we would just "pop"

            the CPU magazine and return the pointer to object.</para>

            <para><emphasis>Step 2.</emphasis> If the CPU-bound magazine is

            empty, allocator will attempt to reload magazin, swapping it with

            second CPU magazine and returns to the first step.</para>

            <para><emphasis>Step 3.</emphasis> Now we are in the situation

            when both CPU-bound magazines are empty, which makes allocator to

            access shared full-magazines depot to reload CPU-bound magazines.

            If reload is succesful (meaning there are full magazines in depot)

            algoritm continues at Step 1.</para>

            <para><emphasis>Step 4.</emphasis> Final step of the allocation.

            In this step object is allocated from the conventional slab layer

            and pointer is returned.</para>

          </formalpara>

          <formalpara>

            <title>Deallocation</title>

            <para><emphasis>Step 1.</emphasis> During deallocation request,

            slab allocator will check if the local CPU-bound magazine is not

            full. In this case we will just push the pointer to this

            magazine.</para>

            <para><emphasis>Step 2.</emphasis> If the CPU-bound magazine is

            full, allocator will attempt to reload magazin, swapping it with

            second CPU magazine and returns to the first step.</para>

            <para><emphasis>Step 3.</emphasis> Now we are in the situation

            when both CPU-bound magazines are full, which makes allocator to

            access shared full-magazines depot to put one of the magazines to

            the depot and creating new empty magazine. Algoritm continues at

            Step 1.</para>

          </formalpara>

        </section>

      </section>

    </section>

    <!-- End of Physmem -->

  </section>

  <section>

    <title>Virtual memory management</title>

    <section>

      <title>Introduction</title>

      <para>Virtual memory is a special memory management technique, used by

      kernel to achieve a bunch of mission critical goals. <itemizedlist>

          <listitem>

             Isolate each task from other tasks that are running on the system at the same time.

          </listitem>

          <listitem>

             Allow to allocate more memory, than is actual physical memory size of the machine.

          </listitem>

          <listitem>

             Allowing, in general, to load and execute two programs that are linked on the same address without complicated relocations.

          </listitem>

        </itemizedlist></para>

      <para><!--

                <para>

                        Address spaces. Address space area (B+ tree). Only for uspace. Set of syscalls (shrink/extend etc).

                        Special address space area type - device - prohibits shrink/extend syscalls to call on it.

                        Address space has link to mapping tables (hierarchical - per Address space, hash - global tables).

                </para>

--></para>

    </section>

    <section>

      <title>Address spaces</title>

      <section>

    <indexterm><primary>memory management</primary><secondary>address space area</secondary></indexterm>

    <title>Address space areas</title>

        <para>Each address space consists of mutually disjunctive continuous

        address space areas. Address space area is precisely defined by its

        base address and the number of frames/pages is contains.</para>

        <para>Address space area , that define behaviour and permissions on

        the particular area. <itemizedlist>

            <listitem>

              <emphasis>AS_AREA_READ</emphasis>

               flag indicates reading permission.

            </listitem>

            <listitem>

              <emphasis>AS_AREA_WRITE</emphasis>

               flag indicates writing permission.

            </listitem>

            <listitem>

              <emphasis>AS_AREA_EXEC</emphasis>

               flag indicates code execution permission. Some architectures do not support execution persmission restriction. In this case this flag has no effect.

            </listitem>

            <listitem>

              <emphasis>AS_AREA_DEVICE</emphasis>

               marks area as mapped to the device memory.

            </listitem>

          </itemizedlist></para>

        <para>Kernel provides possibility tasks create/expand/shrink/share its

        address space via the set of syscalls.</para>

      </section>

      <section>

    <indexterm><primary>memory management</primary><secondary>asid</secondary></indexterm>

        <title>Address Space ID (ASID)</title>

        <para>When switching to the different task, kernel also require to

        switch mappings to the different address space. In case TLB cannot

        distinguish address space mappings, all mapping information in TLB

        from the old address space must be flushed, which can create certain

        uncessary overhead during the task switching. To avoid this, some

        architectures have capability to segregate different address spaces on

        hardware level introducing the address space identifier as a part of

        TLB record, telling the virtual address space translation unit to

        which address space this record is applicable.</para>

        <para>HelenOS kernel can take advantage of this hardware supported

        identifier by having an ASID abstraction which is somehow related to

        the corresponding architecture identifier. I.e. on ia64 kernel ASID is

        derived from RID (region identifier) and on the mips32 kernel ASID is

        actually the hardware identifier. As expected, this ASID information

        record is the part of <emphasis>as_t</emphasis> structure.</para>

        <para>Due to the hardware limitations, hardware ASID has limited

        length from 8 bits on ia64 to 24 bits on mips32, which makes it

        impossible to use it as unique address space identifier for all tasks

        running in the system. In such situations special ASID stealing

        algoritm is used, which takes ASID from inactive task and assigns it

        to the active task.</para>

        <para><classname>ASID stealing algoritm here.</classname></para>

      </section>

    </section>

    <section>

      <title>Virtual address translation</title>

      <section id="paging">

        <title>Paging</title>

        <section>

          <title>Introduction</title>

          <para>Virtual memory is usually using paged memory model, where

          virtual memory address space is divided into the

          <emphasis>pages</emphasis> (usually having size 4096 bytes) and

          physical memory is divided into the frames (same sized as a page, of

          course). Each page may be mapped to some frame and then, upon memory

          access to the virtual address, CPU performs <emphasis>address

          translation</emphasis> during the instruction execution.

          Non-existing mapping generates page fault exception, calling kernel

          exception handler, thus allowing kernel to manipulate rules of

          memory access. Information for pages mapping is stored by kernel in

          the page tables</para>

          <para>The majority of the architectures use multi-level page tables,

          which means need to access physical memory several times before

          getting physical address. This fact would make serios performance

          overhead in virtual memory management. To avoid this <link

          linkend="tlb">Traslation Lookaside Buffer (TLB)</link> is

          used.</para>

          <para>HelenOS kernel has two different approaches to the paging

          implementation: <emphasis>4 level page tables</emphasis> and

          <emphasis>global hash table</emphasis>, which are accessible via

          generic paging abstraction layer. Such different functionality was

          caused by the major architectural differences between supported

          platforms. This abstraction is implemented with help of the global

          structure of pointers to basic mapping functions

          <emphasis>page_mapping_operations</emphasis>. To achieve different

          functionality of page tables, corresponding layer must implement

          functions, declared in

          <emphasis>page_mapping_operations</emphasis></para>

          <para>Thanks to the abstract paging interface, there was a place

          left for more paging implementations (besides already implemented

          hieararchical page tables and hash table), for example B-Tree based

          page tables.</para>

        </section>

        <section>

          <title>Hierarchical 4-level page tables</title>

          <para>Hierarchical 4-level page tables are the generalization of the

          hardware capabilities of most architectures. Each address space has

          its own page tables.<itemizedlist>

              <listitem>

                 ia32 uses 2-level page tables, with full hardware support.

              </listitem>

              <listitem>

                 amd64 uses 4-level page tables, also coming with full hardware support.

              </listitem>

              <listitem>

                 mips and ppc32 have 2-level tables, software simulated support.

              </listitem>

            </itemizedlist></para>

        </section>

        <section>

      <indexterm><primary>memory management</primary><secondary>hash table</secondary></indexterm>          

      <title>Global hash table</title>

          <para>Implementation of the global hash table was encouraged by the

          ia64 architecture support. One of the major differences between

          global hash table and hierarchical tables is that global hash table

          exists only once in the system and the hierarchical tables are

          maintained per address space.</para>

          <para>Thus, hash table contains information about all address spaces

          mappings in the system, so, the hash of an entry must contain

          information of both address space pointer or id and the virtual

          address of the page. Generic hash table implementation assumes that

          the addresses of the pointers to the address spaces are likely to be

          on the close addresses, so it uses least significant bits for hash;

          also it assumes that the virtual page addresses have roughly the

          same probability of occurring, so the least significant bits of VPN

          compose the hash index.</para>

          <para>Collision chains ...</para>

        </section>

      </section>

      <section id="tlb">

        <indexterm><primary>memory management</primary><secondary>tlb</secondary></indexterm>

        <title>Translation Lookaside buffer</title>

        <para>Due to the extensive overhead during the page mapping lookup in

        the page tables, all architectures has fast assotiative cache memory

        built-in CPU. This memory called TLB stores recently used page table

        entries.</para>

        <section id="tlb_shootdown">

          <title>TLB consistency. TLB shootdown algorithm.</title>

          <para>Operating system is responsible for keeping TLB consistent by

          invalidating the contents of TLB, whenever there is some change in

          page tables. Those changes may occur when page or group of pages

          were unmapped, mapping is changed or system switching active address

          space to schedule a new system task. Moreover, this invalidation

          operation must be done an all system CPUs because each CPU has its

          own independent TLB cache. Thus maintaining TLB consistency on SMP

          configuration as not as trivial task as it looks on the first

          glance. Naive solution would assume that is the CPU which wants to

          invalidate TLB will invalidate TLB caches on other CPUs. It is not

          possible on the most of the architectures, because of the simple

          fact - flushing TLB is allowed only on the local CPU and there is no

          possibility to access other CPUs' TLB caches, thus invalidate TLB

          remotely.</para>

          <para>Technique of remote invalidation of TLB entries is called "TLB

          shootdown". HelenOS uses a variation of the algorithm described by

          D. Black et al., "Translation Lookaside Buffer Consistency: A

          Software Approach," Proc. Third Int'l Conf. Architectural Support

          for Programming Languages and Operating Systems, 1989, pp.

          113-122.</para>

          <para>As the situation demands, you will want partitial invalidation

          of TLB caches. In case of simple memory mapping change it is

          necessary to invalidate only one or more adjacent pages. In case if

          the architecture is aware of ASIDs, when kernel needs to dump some

          ASID to use by another task, it invalidates only entries from this

          particular address space. Final option of the TLB invalidation is

          the complete TLB cache invalidation, which is the operation that

          flushes all entries in TLB.</para>

          <para>TLB shootdown is performed in two phases.</para>

          <formalpara>

            <title>Phase 1.</title>

            <para>First, initiator locks a global TLB spinlock, then request

            is being put to the local request cache of every other CPU in the

            system protected by its spinlock. In case the cache is full, all

            requests in the cache are replaced by one request, indicating

            global TLB flush. Then the initiator thread sends an IPI message

            indicating the TLB shootdown request to the rest of the CPUs and

            waits actively until all CPUs confirm TLB invalidating action

            execution by setting up a special flag. After setting this flag

            this thread is blocked on the TLB spinlock, held by the

            initiator.</para>

          </formalpara>

          <formalpara>

            <title>Phase 2.</title>

            <para>All CPUs are waiting on the TLB spinlock to execute TLB

            invalidation action and have indicated their intention to the

            initiator. Initiator continues, cleaning up its TLB and releasing

            the global TLB spinlock. After this all other CPUs gain and

            immidiately release TLB spinlock and perform TLB invalidation

            actions.</para>

          </formalpara>

        </section>

      </section>

    </section>

  </section>

</chapter>